Albert Bandura

Bandura believes motivation is the most essential aspect of observational learning. A person's goals determine what learned behaviors will be reproduced. Observed behaviors that appear effective for others in acquiring similar goals will be favored over those that do not. Another Bandura distinction is his belief that there is no reinforcement without prior cognition. He views reinforcement as an antecedent rather than a consequent influence of behavior. Anticipation of reinforcement is an influencing factor of what is observed and retained. Also, people must realize the connections between actions and outcomes.

Bandura also stresses the effect of an individual's perceived abilities on his or her behavior. This perceived self-effectiveness is called self-efficacy. An individual can believe that a certain course of action will produce certain outcomes but feel unsure as to his own ability to perform those actions. The less confident he is in his abilities, the less likely he is to engage in the behavior. Thus, people are more influenced by their feelings of efficacy than by their expectations of outcomes. The strength of people's beliefs in their own abilities determines whether they will even try to cope with difficult situations.

Self-efficacy is a major determinant of self-regulation and can be used to explain how children's changing self-concepts can affect their social behavior. Self-efficacy is acquired, enhanced, or decreased through any one or a combination of four sources. The most influential source is performance accomplishment. Successful performance raises efficacy expectancies while failure tends to lower them. Vicarious experiences are a second source of efficacy. By observing the behavior and outcomes of others, we form hypotheses about the relationships between their behavior and outcomes. Observing a model performing behavior that results in beneficial consequences raises self-efficacy. Observing someone of equal competence fail at a task lowers self-efficacy.

Verbal persuasion is also effective in influencing self-efficacy. This technique will only work if the person believes the persuader. If the success expectations are not positively reinforced by direct experience, future efficacy will not be raised. For these reasons, it is not a very strong source.

Emotional arousal influences efficacy in threatening situations. Strong emotions usually lower performance when people judge their abilities using their emotional arousal as a basis. People expect failure when they are experiencing intense fear or acute anxiety. A reduction in anxiety or increase in relaxation will raise efficacy. Bandura's major contribution has been his evidence of the prominent role of observational learning in human development.

Modeling can be used as an effective form of psychotherapy, especially in children. His self-efficacy theory also presented a new concept for therapeutic change. He has been praised for his research techniques, especially the fact that he used human rather than animal subjects.